Arsenic

  Arsenic is a naturally occurring element found in soil, rocks and the human body.  It easily disperses in water as a result of the breakdown of arsenic-bearing minerals and the burning of fossil fuels.

  Arsenic is primarily utilized as an insecticide, although it is also employed in wood preservation and petroleum refining.

  Arsenic, in its organic form, is primarily ingested via food supplies.  However, water is a candidate for inorganic arsenic contamination as well, and with a greater degree of potential harm.  National studies confirm the presence of arsenic in 3 to 39 percent of all drinking water supplies at a rate of no more than 10 ppb, or parts per billion.  It is estimated that 34 million Americans are exposed to some level of contaminated water.  

  Higher concentrations are found in groundwater, although surface water may, too, become cause for regulatory concern.

  Data has shown that levels of arsenic contamination of groundwater are geographically highest in the West, Midwest and the Northeast and lowest in the Southeast.  This variability in arsenic levels is a function of well-depth, aquifer type and geography.

  Levels of arsenic in drinking water are established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, which is responsible for administering the Safe Drinking Water Act.  The EPA recently approved a standard of 10 parts per billion, which is a substantial reduction from the previous standard of 50 ppb. Utilities are expected to comply with the new standard by January 2006.

  Testing conducted during the year 2001 did not reveal the presence of arsenic in water supplied by the Hilton Head Public Service District. Nonetheless, the District is required by the EPA to issue a public notice within 30 days should the maximum contaminant level be exceeded.

  Long term exposure to arsenic has been linked to several types of cancer.  It may also affect the vascular system and is associated with the development of diabetes.  High oral doses can possibly cause gastrointestinal disorders or cardiovascular problems.

  Arsenic-rich water is safe to use in common household tasks such as dishwashing, laundry and bathing, as absorption through the skin is minimal.  Inhalation is generally harmless as well, although large quantities of arsenic in the air may increase the risk for lung cancer. 

Tap Water vs. Bottled Water

  Bottled water is the fastest growing product in the beverage industry.  With an estimated annual worth of $22 billion dollars, bottled water is consumed at an average rate of fifteen liters per person per year.

  As a general rule, bottled water is comprised of one of three sources: natural mineral water, spring water or purified water, the latter of which differs from tap water in price and distribution only.  In the United States, municipal-or tap-water is the source for approximately 25% of bottled water.

  Studies have demonstrated that the increased consumption of bottled water is, in part, fueled by a belief that it is less prone to contamination.  However, a 1986 EPA survey of twenty-five bottlers found that none had ever conducted a complete water analysis.  In fact, evidence of bacteria was present in 8% of the water tested.  The only truly pure water is distilled water, which is unsuitable for human consumption.

  According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, bottled water is not superior to tap water in terms of health benefits or nutritional value.  A comparison of several popular bottled waters with New York City tap water revealed no significant difference.

  Both bottled and municipal water contain phosphorous, calcium, fluoride and various other minerals and elements as a result of its contact with geological layers.  The presence of such minerals is vital to the health of teeth, bones and brain activity.

  In Europe and the United States, tap water is more stringently regulated than bottled water.  Whereas bottled water is regulated by the Food & Drug Administration as a food product, tap water is monitored as a utility by the Environmental Protection Agency.

  According to a study commissioned by the World Wildlife Fund Global Network, water bottlers use an estimated 1.5 million tons of plastic annually for distribution purposes.  Notwithstanding the use of recyclable materials, the environmental impact of bottling and distribution has the potential to be quite severe.

  Bottled water costs an average 500 to 1000 times more than its’ municipal counterpart.  This expense is the result of distribution, marketing and retail efforts.

Cryptosporidium

  Cryptosporidium is a single-celled parasite that lives and reproduces in the intestines of humans and animals.

  Cryptosporidium is present in most bodies of surface water, including lakes, streams and rivers.  The prevalence of the pathogen increases during periods of heavy rain when runoff transports the fecal matter of infected animals, thereby penetrating the water supply.  Studies have shown that cryptosporidium exists in approximately 95% of municipal waters supplies.

  Monitoring and detection of cryptosporidium can be challenging, as it is easily spread via casual contact and food supplies. 

  In its early development, this pathogen encases itself in a protective sheath, making it resistant to chlorine– a standard component of the disinfection process for drinking water.  In fact, cryptosporidium can survive in chlorinated water for up to a week. 

  Nor can the parasite be eradicated with common household cleaning products.  However, temperatures over 160 degrees Fahrenheit- higher than most domestic tap water-will destroy cryptosporidium.

  Cryptosporidium is the cause of a disease called cryptosporidiosis, a condition characterized by diarrhea, abdominal cramping, nausea and dehydration.  While no known cure exists, healthy individuals will generally recover within two weeks.  Cryptosporidiosis can be particularly severe, however, for immunocompromised individuals—cancer patients, transplant recipients and HIV-infected individuals.

  Cryptosporidiosis was first diagnosed in humans in 1976; however, it was not until the early 1980’s that physicians began to routinely identify the disease. 

  In a 1996 amendment to the Safe Drinking Water Act, the EPA advocated the eventual elimination of cryptosporidium in water supplies.  At the same time, the EPA recognized the inherent obstacles in the detection of cryptosporidium and, thus, strengthened the standards for water clarity as well.

  Although health officials acknowledge the difficulty in determining the necessary quantity of pathogens at which cryptosporidiosis will develop, researchers believe that the low numbers that currently exist in water supplies are not cause for public concern.

  The Centers for Disease Control recommends practicing good hygiene, and, if necessary, boiling water to combat the potential spread of cryptosporidium.

Fluoride

  Fluoride is a naturally occurring substance found in groundwater and soil at varying concentration levels.  It also exists in trace amounts in the human body.

  At low levels, fluoride has been proven to prevent tooth decay, as well as promote the remineralization of teeth.

  In large doses, fluoride can potentially cause osteoporosis and dental fluorosis, a condition characterized by tooth discoloration and erosion of the gums.  It has also been linked to digestive and nervous system disorders.

  Since 1945, communities have supplemented their water supplies with fluoride, a practice commonly known as fluoridation.

In 1995, it was estimated that approximately 62 million people were serviced by a system with fluoridated water.

  Sodium fluoride, sodium fluorosilicate and fluorosilic acid are the principal agents used influoridation.

  The American Dental Association, the American Medical Association, the United States Public Health Service and the American Water Works Association endorse the fluoridation of potable water supplies.

  The cost of fluoridation in the United States is estimated at an average of fifty-four cents per person.

  The Hilton Head Public Service District does not fluoridate the drinking water supplied by the Floridian Aquifer.  However, Savannah River water purchased from the Beaufort Jasper Water & Sewer Authority is fluoridated in small amounts.

  The Environmental Protection Agency has established a standard of 4 mg/L, or milligrams per liter, as an acceptable level of fluoride in drinking water.  The State of South Carolina has placed the standard at 2 mg/L to further protect human health.

  Under the authority of the Safe Drinking Water Act, the District is required to notify customers within thirty days should the contaminant level exceed the EPA standard. 

  Excess fluoride in the water supply can be easily filtered out through a chemical process.

 Giardia

  Giardia is a microscopic parasite that lives and reproduces in the intestines of warm-blooded mammals.  Giardia exists in all regions throughout the United States and the world, in both urban and rural settings.

  Giardia encases itself in a tough, protective shell known as a cyst.  The cyst renders giardia resistant to chlorine, the traditional agent of disinfection for municipal water supplies.  The cyst generates further protection by inhibiting easy detection.

  Giardia originates in the infected feces of animals and humans, infiltrating surface and groundwater via runoff.  The parasite can also be found in soil, food and other contaminated surfaces with which it has come into contact.

  In 1981, the World Health Organization classified giardia as a pathogen.  It is recognized as one of the two most common causes of waterborne disease.

  Giardia is responsible for giardiasis in humans, an extremely contagious condition characterized by stomach cramps, diarrhea and dehydration.  Giardiasis can be effectively treated with a combination of medication and time.  Individuals with weakened immune systems will generally require additional specialized treatment.

  To avoid the spread of giardiasis, the Centers for Disease Control recommends washing hands thoroughly before handling food and after changing diapers, as well as avoiding recreational waters when experiencing diarrhea.  If necessary, consumers should also boil their water for approximately three minutes to ensure the consumption of properly disinfected water.

  Giardia-contaminated water supplies can be effectively treated through a combination of filtration and disinfection.  Ozone is one of the most commonly used disinfection agents. 

  Although the Safe Drinking Water Act does not establish a maximum contaminant level for giardia, the Environmental Protection Agency requires that 99.9% of the protozoan be removed from drinking water supplies. 

  Should the Hilton Head Public Service District violate the standard for giardia in municipal water supplies, the EPA mandates public notification as soon as practical within thirty days.

Lead

  Lead is an extremely toxic metal found in water, food, air, soil, dust and deteriorating paint. 

  Lead contamination of the water supply generally occurs once water leaves the water treatment plant and wells.  Contamination is most often due to the corrosion of lead pipes and faucets in or near homes.

  Lead cannot be tasted, seen or smelled once it has dissolved in water.

  The age of a home or building directly affects levels of lead contamination.  Lead pipes were commonly used in residential plumbing installed before the 1930’s, and replacement copper pipes often utilized lead solder.  New “lead-free” brass faucets and fittings can also leach lead.

  A 1986 amendment to the Safe Drinking Water Act required the use of lead-free pipes and solder in the construction of residential plumbing and the installation or repair of public water systems.

  Excessive inhalation or ingestion of lead can cause serious damage to the brain, kidneys, nervous system and red blood cells.

  Young children, infants and fetuses are particularly vulnerable to lead, as developing children absorb it into their systems more rapidly than do adults.  The presence of lead in drinking water is estimated to account for ten to twenty percent of a child’s overall exposure to the toxic substance.

  Under the authority of the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Environmental Protection Agency established the maximum allowable level of lead at 15 ppb, or parts per billion.

  The Hilton Head Public Service District tests the water supply for lead every three years as mandated by the EPA.  During testing conducted at its eight wells in 2001, the District detected concentrations of lead substantially below the EPA's standard.

  Unfortunately, lead cannot be removed from water by boiling it.  In fact, excessive boiling can elevate the concentration of lead, which remains long after water has evaporated.

  There are a number of actions that can be taken to reduce or eliminate lead in drinking water.  It is recommended that consumers flush inactive pipes thoroughly before use.  Consumers are also advised to consume tap water that is cold rather than hot, as lead dissolves more easily into hot water.  If necessary, water should be tested by a professional laboratory.

Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MtBe)

  Methyl Tertiary-Butyl Ether, or MTBE, is a volatile, organic chemical utilized as a gasoline additive in the United States since the late 1970’s. 

  Originally utilized to replace lead as an octane enhancer, MTBE promotes a more complete and efficient burning of gasoline.  More recently, the EPA has authorized its use in reformulated gas to control carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions.

  The Clean Air Act of 1990 mandated the use of MTBE and reformulated gasoline in regions with high smog rates and poor air quality.  Data submitted in 1995 illustrated the benefits of MTBE, as the reduction in emissions exceeded the goals and expectations of the Clean Air Act.

  MTBE has occasionally penetrated drinking water supplies.  Contamination has been most frequently documented in urban areas of high population density and increased motor vehicle traffic.

  MTBE is highly soluble in water, allowing for rapid and easy transport of the chemical.  Contaminated water supplies, even in minute amounts, will exhibit a turpentine-like taste and odor.

  It is believed that water contamination results from leaking underground petroleum storage tanks and, to a lesser extent, car exhaust and two-cycle engines.  The EPA mandates that all underground storage tanks be protected from spillage, leakage and corrosion.  At present, approximately 80% of all regulated tanks are in compliance with EPA standards.

  Serious concerns about drinking water contamination and the safety of MTBE prompted California Governor Gray Davis to institute an Executive Order eliminating the use of MTBE in gasoline.

  Based on current data and previous incidences of water contamination, MTBE is unlikely to cause adverse health effects in humans when ingested in small amounts.  In high doses, however, it has been tentatively linked to both cancerous and non-cancerous conditions.

  MTBE is currently on the EPA’s Contaminant Candidate List, with an advisory level of 20 to 40 ppb, or parts per billion, for taste and odor.  Further research must be done to determine an appropriate level for long-term regulation and the specific impact of the chemical on humans. 

  The District does not test for MTBE as contamination is generally confined to areas of extensive industry and high motor vehicle use.  The South Carolina Department of Health & Environmental Control does, however, conduct testing on a quarterly basis for the chemical.

Nitrogen, Nitrate & Nitrite

  Nitrogen is the most plentiful element in the atmosphere, accounting for nearly 80% of all inhaled gases.

  Nitrogen is naturally converted into a usable chemical form through one of three processes-fixation, ammonification, or nitrification.  The resultant nitrates and nitrites are used as fertilizers, explosives and food preservatives.  These inorganic compounds are also an essential nutrient for plants.

  In the central and southeastern United States, nitrogen contamination is primarily the result of agricultural fertilizers and animal wastes.  Through surface runoff during periods of heavy or prolonged rain, fertilizer, wastes and improperly disposed chemicals are swept into rivers, lakes and streams.

  High levels of nitrogen in surface bodies of water promote algae growth, which competes with fish and other aquatic life for space and oxygen.

  Nitrate and nitrite do not display a taste, odor or smell.

  Nitrate contamination is cited as the most frequent cause for shutting down a well.

  Infants are particularly susceptible to nitrate ingestion during their first six months.  Low levels of acidity in the stomach, as is exhibited in infants, permit bacterial growth.  The bacteria, in turn, converts nitrate into nitrite, a highly toxic substance that reduces oxygen in the human body.  However, nitrates are essentially harmless for the remaining population when ingested in small doses.

  Under the authority of the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Environmental Protection Agency established the maximum contaminant level for nitrates at 10 ppm, or parts per million, and for nitrites at 0.1 ppm.  The EPA estimates that 4.5 million of the people served by municipal water systems are exposed to excessive levels of nitrates and nitrites.

  Testing conducted during the year 2001 by the Hilton Head Public Service District detected nitrate levels of no more than 0.03 ppm at any well site, a figure substantially below the EPA standard.

  For homeowners, nitrate and nitrite contaminated water supplies are particularly difficult and costly to treat.  The boiling of nitrate– or nitrite-contaminated water is an ineffective measure, as boiling only serves to concentrate the chemical.

Serratia Marcescens

  Serratia Marcescens is a common species of bacteria that occurs naturally throughout the environment, appearing more frequently in humid conditions.

  This bacterium is thought to be the source of a pink residue often found on bathroom fixtures, including the sink, shower and along the water line of the toilet bowl.

  While testing to determine the exact nature of this pink-colored growth would be both costly and time-consuming, scientists and laboratory analysts have concluded it is the bacteria species Serratia Marcescens.

  Serratia Marcescens can survive in even nominal conditions, often feeding upon itself in the absence of other nutrients.  It thrives in the moist, dark conditions often found in bathrooms.

  Since this bacterium is prevalent in dusty conditions, it will oftentimes appear during reconstructions or renovation when dust and airborne particles are stirred up.

  Serratia Marcescens is not an indicator of poor water quality in the distribution system.  Rather, the residue is thought to result from airborne bacteria and is also affected by a homeowner’s cleaning habits.

  For many years, S. Marcescens was considered both harmless and useful.  It was utilized, for example, by scientists and teachers alike for experiments to track the presence of other microbes.  However, the bacterium was later theorized to cause urinary tract infections, pneumonia and other health-related problems in some people and is, therefore, no longer used for this purpose.  While S. Marcescens generally does not adversely affect most individuals, those with compromised immune systems should take special precautions or consult with a health care professional.

  The United States Environmental Protection Agency does not require mandatory testing for the bacterium.  Because the bacterium travels freely throughout the air in some homes, testing and treatment would do little to prevent the production of the bacterium.

  There are several methods that homeowners can use to control the development of this pink residue. Products containing chlorine, such as common household bleach, will both remove and control the proliferation of S. Marcescens. Also, keep bathroom fixtures dry and free of standing water, paying special attention to the rim underneath the toilet.

Trihalomethanes (THMs)

  Chlorination is the disinfection process utilized by municipal water suppliers throughout the country to eliminate bacteria, viruses and parasites from drinking water.  Chlorination has proven extremely effective in combating many waterborne diseases. 

  Trihalomethanes, or THM’s, are chemical compounds that result from the blending of chlorination agents and naturally occurring organics in water.  These disinfection byproducts include chloroform, bromoform, bromodichloromethane and dichlorochloromethane.

  In general, concentrations of THM’s are elevated in treated supplies of surface water, where organic matter is more prevalent.  Conversely,  treated supplies of groundwater contain a lower quantity of organic content, thus inhibiting the formation of THM’s.

  While studies have not been conclusive, THM’s have been associated with an increased risk of bladder and colon cancer as well as birth defects.  Additional research suggests the possibility of damage to the heart, lungs, kidneys, liver and central nervous system.

  The Environmental Protection Agency has placed the maximum contaminant level for THM’s at 100 ppb, or parts per billion.  Effective in December 2004, this level will be reduced to 80 ppb for all public water systems.

  Testing throughout the year 2001 by the Hilton Head Public Service District detected a level of no more than 55 ppb at any District site.

  In recognizing the potential harm that may result from THM’s, the District began using chloramine as a substitute for chlorine in the disinfection process.  Chloramine, a combination of ammonia and chlorine, suppresses the interaction and, therefore, retards the formation of THM’s. 

  Chloramine is more stable than chlorine, lasting longer and providing greater protection from bacterial contamination.  In addition, chloramine prevents the taste and odor produced by the formation of THM’s.

  Chloramines are safe for most household activities, including drinking, cooking and bathing.  There are two groups, however, that must take special precautions—kidney dialysis patients and fish owners.  Dialysis patients and fish take water directly into the bloodstream and chloramines can be toxic when ingested in that manner.

  As established by the EPA’s Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level, the standard for chloramine in water supplies is 4 mg/L, or milligrams per liter.

Tritium

  Tritium is a hydrogen isotope with an atomic weight of three that occurs naturally in trace amounts in water.  With a half life of approximately twelve years, 5.9 percent of an initial inventory would remain after fifty years. 

  Tritium is a byproduct of nuclear power and is manufactured for the production of nuclear weaponry.  Because tritium decays at an approximate rate of five percent annually, the United States government is currently exploring the need for further production.

  Tritium is also utilized to trace the rate of flow of groundwater.

  Consumption of water with low levels of tritium are not hazardous.  However, excessive exposure to high levels of tritium has been linked to developmental and reproductive problems as well as an increased risk of cancer.

  Tritium was processed at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Savannah River Site from 1955 – 1988 for the production of nuclear weapons.

  The Savannah River Site leaked large amounts of the isotope into the river in 1991, eliciting suspended pumping until water supplies were again deemed safe.

  In 1999, the Hilton Head Public Service District began purchasing potable water from BJWSA, or the Beaufort-Jasper Water & Sewer Authority.  BJWSA acquires the supply from the Savannah River and purifies it before releasing it to one of the District’s storage tanks or distribution mains.

  Water from the Savannah River continues to supply the District and its’ customers with high quality drinking water.  Although the probability of a tritium spill is minimal, the river is constantly monitored by the Beaufort-Jasper Water and Sewer Authority and the Department of Energy as well as an independent laboratory.  In the event of a spill, BJWSA protocol calls for using stored water supplies and a shut down of river intake valves until high concentration levels have passed intake areas.

  The Environmental Protection Agency has placed the maximum allowable contaminant level at 20,000 pCi/L, or picoCuries per Liter. 

  Continuous sampling of the water supplied by the Hilton Head Public Service District in 2001 detected levels of tritium substantially below the EPA standard at 848 pCi/L.  Nonetheless, if the District were to violate the standard, the EPA requires public notification as soon as possible within thirty days.